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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQS);faqs.031



    Also note that, contrary to popular belief in the U.S. (and in
    some parts of Canada), Canada is not a wholly-owned subsidiary
    of the U.S.  Consequently, the NEC does not apply in Canada.
    Lots of things are the same, including voltages, line
    frequencies, and the laws of physics.  But there are a number
    of crucial differences in the regulations.  Where we can, we've
    noted them, flagging the relevant passages with ``NEC'' or
    ``CEC''.

    Remember that the CEC and NEC are minimal standards.  It is often
    smart to go beyond their minimal requirements.

Subject: What is the NEC?  Where can I get a copy?

    The NEC is a model electrical code devised and published by the
    National Fire Protection Association, an insurance industry group.
    It's revised every three years.  The 1993 version will be
    released in September, 1992.  You can buy a copy at a decent
    bookstore, or by calling them directly at 800-344-3555.  The
    code exists in several versions.  There's the full text, which
    is fairly incomprehensible.  There's an abridged edition, which
    has only the sections likely to apply to most houses.  And
    there's the NEC Handbook, which contains the ``authorized
    commentary'' on the code, as well as the full text.  That's the
    recommended version.  Unfortunately, there's no handbook for
    the abridged edition.  And the full handbook is expensive --
    US$65 plus shipping and handling.

Subject: What is the CEC?  Where can I get a copy?

    The Canadian Standards Association is an organization made up
    of various government agencies, power utilities, insurance
    companies, electrical manufacturers and other organizations.
    The CSA publishes CSA Standard C22.1 which is updated every two
    or three years.  Each province adopts, with some amendments,
    this standard and publishes a province-specific code book.
    Since each province publishes its own slightly modified
    standard, it would be somewhat confusing to obtain the CSA
    standard itself.  In this FAQ, "CEC" really means the
    appropriate provincial standard.  In particular, this FAQ is
    derived from the Ontario Hydro Electrical Safety Code, 20th
    edition (1990).  Which is in turn based on CSA C22.1-1990 (16th
    edition).  While differences exist between the provinces, an
    attempt has been made to avoid specific-to-Ontario detail.

    The appropriate provincial code can be obtained from electrical
    inspection offices of your provincial power authority.  In
    Ontario, it's Ontario Hydro.  The Ontario Hydro book isn't
    overly fat.  It's about C$25, and includes mailed updates.  I
    hear that these standards are somewhat easier to read than the
    equivalent NEC publications.

    Don't bother asking in Quebec - DIY wiring is banned throughout
    the province.

Subject: Can I do my own wiring?  Extra pointers?

    In most places, homeowners are allowed to do their own wiring.
    In some, they're not.  Check with your local electrical
    inspector.  Most places won't permit you to do wiring on other's
    homes for money without a license.  Nor are you permitted to do
    wiring in "commercial" buildings.  Multiple dwellings (eg: duplexes)
    are usually considered "semi-commercial" or "commercial".  However,
    many jurisdictions will permit you to work on semi-commercial
    wiring if you're supervised by a licensed electrician - if you can
    find one willing to supervise.

    If you do your own wiring, an important point:

    Do it NEAT and WELL!  What you really want to aim for is a better
    job than an electrician will do.  After all, it's your own home,
    and it's you or your family that might get killed if you make
    a mistake.  An electrician has time pressures, has the skills
    and knows the tricks of the trade to do a fast, safe job.
    In this FAQ we've consciously given a few recommendations that
    are in excess of code, because we feel that it's reasonable,
    and will impress the inspector.

    The inspector will know that you're an amateur.  You have to
    earn his trust.  The best way of doing this is to spend your
    time doing as neat a job as possible.  Don't cut corners.
    Exceed specifications.  Otherwise, the inspector may get extremely
    picky and fault you on the slightest transgressions.

    Don't try to hide anything from the inspector.

    Use the proper tools.  Ie: don't use a bread knife to strip
    wires, or twist wires with your fingers.  The inspector
    won't like it, and the results won't be that safe.  And it
    takes longer.  And you're more likely to stick a hunk of
    12ga wire through your hand that way.

    Don't handle house wire when it's very cold (eg: below -10C
    or 16F).  Thermoplastic house wire, particularly older types
    become very brittle.

Subject: What do I need in the way of tools?

    First, there's the obvious -- a hammer, a drill, a few
    screwdrivers, both straight and Phillips-head.  If you're
    lucky enough to live in Canada (or find a source of CSA-approved
    devices) you need Robertson ("square recess") screwdrivers
    (#1 and #2) instead of phillips.

    For drilling a few holes, a 3/4" or 1" spade bit and 1/4" or
    3/8" electric drill will do.  If you're doing a lot, or
    are working with elderly lumber, we recommend a 1/2" drill
    (right-angle drills are wonderful.  Can be rented) and
    3/4" or 1" screw-point auger drill bits.  These bits pull
    you through, so they're much faster and less fatiguing, even
    in 90 year old hardwood timbers.

    Screw-driver bits are useful for drills, expecially if you
    install your electrical boxes using screws (drywall screws
    work well).

    For stripping wire, use a real wire stripper, not a knife or
    ordinary wire cutters.  Don't buy the $3 K-mart "combo stripper,
    crimper and bottle opener" types.  You should expect to pay
    $15 to $20 for a good "plier-type" pair.  It will have sized
    stripping holes, and won't nick or grab the wire - it should
    be easy to strip wire with it.  One model has a small hole in the
    blade for forming exact wire loops for screw terminals.  There
    are fancier types (autostrip/cut), but they generally aren't
    necessary, and pros usually don't use them.

    A pair of diagonal side cutter pliers are useful for clipping ends
    in constricted places.  Don't use these for stripping wire.

    You will need linesman pliers for twisting wires for wire nuts.

    You should have a pair of needle-nose pliers for fiddling
    inside boxes and closing loops, but it's better to form wire
    loops with a "loop former hole" on your wire stripper - more
    accurate.

    If you're using non-metallic cable, get a cable stripper for
    removing the sheath.  Or, do what some pros do, they nick the
    end of the sheath, grab the ground wire with a pair of pliers,
    and simply rip the sheath back using the ground wire as a
    "zipper", and cut the sheath off.  You shouldn't try to strip
    the sheath with a knife point, because it's too easy to
    slash the insulation on the conductors.

    For any substantial amount of work with armored cable, it's well
    worth your while to invest in a rotary cable splitter (~US$ 18).
    Hack saws are tricky to use without cutting into the wire
    or the insulation.

    Three-prong outlet testers are a quick check for properly-wired
    outlets.  About $6.  Multimeters tell you more, but are a lot more
    expensive, and probably not worth it for most people.  A simple
    voltage sensor, which can detect potential through an insulated
    wire not supplying any devices, is extremely helpful; they cost
    about US$ 10 at Radio Shack.

    You should have a voltage detector - to check that the wires are
    dead before doing work on them.  Neon-bulb version are cheap ($2-3)
    and work well.  If you get more serious, a "audible alarm" type is
    good for tracing circuits without a helper.  (Though I've been known
    to lock the drill on, and hit breakers until the scream stops ;-)

    For running wires through existing walls, you need fish tape.
    Often, two tapes are needed, though sometimes, a bent hanger or
    a length of thin chain will suffice.  Fish tapes can be rented.

    Electrical tape.  Lots of it ;-)  Seriously, a good and competent
    wiring job will need very little tape.  The tape is useful for
    wrapping dicy insulation in repair work.  Another use is to wrap
    around the body of outlets and switches to cover the termination
    screws - I don't do this, but drywall contractors prefer it (to
    prevent explosions when the drywall knife collides with a live outlet
    that has no cover plate).

Subject: What is UL listing?

    The UL stands for "Underwriters Laboratory", which is a
    insurance industry organization that tests electrical
    components and equipment for potential hazards.  When something
    is UL-listed, that means that the UL has tested the device,
    and it meets their requirements for safety - ie: fire or shock
    hazard.  It doesn't necessarily mean that the device actually does
    what it's supposed to, just that it probably won't kill you.

    The UL does not have power of law in the U.S. -- you are
    permitted to buy and install non-UL-approved devices.  However,
    insurance policies sometimes have clauses in them that will
    limit their liability in case of a claim made in response to
    the failure of a non-UL-approved device.  Furthermore, in
    many situations the NEC will require a device ``listed'' for
    some purpose.  What they mean is a device that UL has approved.
    There is thus the indirect force of law.

Subject: What is CSA approval?

    Every electrical device or component must be certified by the
    Canadian Standards Association before it can be sold in
    Canada.  Implicit in this is that all wiring must be done
    with CSA-approved materials.  They perform testing similar to
    the UL (a bit more stringent), except that CSA approval is
    required by law.

    Again, like the UL, if a fire was caused by non-CSA-approved
    equipment, your insurance company may not have to pay the
    claim.

    In Canada, there is a branch organization of the UL, called ULC
    (UL of Canada).  ULC does not have power of law, and seems to
    be more a liason group between the CSA and insurance
    companies.

Subject: Are there any cheaper, easier to read books on wiring?

    USA: The following three books were suggested by our readers

        Residential Wiring
        by Jeff Markell,
        Craftsman Books,
        Carlsbad CA for $18.25. ISBN 0-934041-19-9.

        Practical Electrical Wiring
        Residential, Farm and Industrial,  Based on the National
        Electrical Code    ANSI/NFPA 70
        Herbert P. Richter and W. Creighton Schwan
        McGraw-Hill Book Co.

        Wiring Simplified
        H. P. Richter and W. C. Schwan
        Park Publishing Co.

    Try to make sure that the book is based on the latest NEC
    revision.  Which is currently 1990.

    Canada: P.S. Knight authors and publishes a book called
    "Electrical Code Simplified".  There appears to be a version
    published specific to each province, and is very tied into the
    appropriate provincial code.  It focuses on residential wiring,
    and is indispensible for Canadian DIY'ers.  It is better to get
    this book than the CEC unless you do a lot of wiring (or answer
    questions on the net ;-).

    It is updated each time the provincial codes are.  This book is
    available at all DIY and hardware stores for less than C$10.

Subject: Inspections how and what?  Why should I get my wiring inspected?

    Most jurisdictions require that you obtain a permit and
    inspections of any wiring that is done.  Amongst other more
    mundane bureaucratic reasons (like insurance companies not
    liking to have to pay claims), a permit and inspections
    provides some assurance that you, your family, your neighbors
    or subsequent owners of your home don't get killed or lose
    their homes one night due to a sloppy wiring job.

    Most jurisdictions have the power to order you to vacate your
    home, or order you to tear out any wiring done without a
    permit.  California, for instance, is particularly nasty about
    this.

    If fire starts in your home, and un-inspected wiring is at
    fault, insurance companies will often refuse to pay the damage
    claims.

    In general, the process goes like this:
        - you apply to your local inspections office or building
          department for a permit.  You should have a sketch or
          detailed drawing of what you plan on doing.  This is
          a good time to ask questions on any things you're not
          sure of.  If you're doing major work, they may impose
          special conditions on you, require loading
          calculations and ask other questions.  At this point
          they will tell you which inspections you will need.
        - If you're installing a main panel, you will need to
          have the panel and service connections inspected
          before your power utility will provide a connection.
          This is sometimes done by the local power authority
          rather than the usual inspectors.
        - After installing the boxes and wiring, but before
          the insulation/walls go up, you will need a
          "rough-in" inspection.
        - After the walls are up, and the wiring is complete,
          you will need a "final inspection".

Subject: My house doesn't meet some of these rules and regulations.
    Do I have to upgrade?

    In general, there is no requirement to upgrade older dwellings,
    though there are some exceptions (ie: smoke detectors in some
    cases).  However, any new work must be done according to the
    latest electrical code.  Also, if you do ``major'' work, you
    may be required to upgrade certain existing portions or all
    of your system.  Check with your local electrical inspector.

Subject: A word on voltages: 110/115/117/120/125/220/240 (NEW)

    One thing where things might get a bit confusing is the
    different numbers people bandy about for the voltage of
    a circuit.  One person might talk about 110V, another 117V
    or another 120V.  These are all, in fact, exactly the same
    thing...  In North America the utility companies are required
    to supply a split-phase 240 volt (+-5%) feed to your house.
    This works out as two 120V legs.  However since there are
    resistive voltage drops in the house wiring, it's not
    unreasonable to find 120V has dropped to 110V or 240V has dropped
    to 220V by the time the power reaches a wall outlet.  Especially
    at the end of an extension cord or long circuit run.  For a number
    of reasons, some historical, some simple personal orneryness,
    different people choose call them by slightly different numbers.
    This FAQ has chosen to be consistent with calling them "110V" and
    "220V", except when actually saying what the measured voltage will
    be.  Confusing?  A bit.  Just ignore it.

|    208V is *not* the same as 240V.  208V is the voltage between
|    phases of a 3-phase "Y" circuit that is 120V from neutral to any
|    hot.  277V is the voltage between hot and neutral of a 3-phase
|    "Y" circuit that's 480V between phases.

Subject: What does an electrical service look like?

    There are logically four wires involved with supplying the
    main panel with power.  Three of them will come from the utility
    pole, and a fourth (bare) wire comes from elsewhere.

     The bare wire is connected to one or more long metal bars pounded
     into the ground, or to a wire buried in the foundation, or sometimes
     to the water supply pipe (has to be metal, continuous to where
    the main water pipe entering the house.  Watch out for galvanic
    action conductivity "breaks" (often between copper and iron pipe)).
    This is the "grounding conductor".  It is there to make sure that
    the third prong on your outlets is connected to ground.  This wire
    normally carries no current.

    One of the other wires will be white (or black with white or
    yellow stripes, or sometimes simply black).  It is the neutral wire.
    It is connected to the "centre tap" (CEC; "center tap" in the
    NEC) of the distribution transformer supplying the power.  It
    is connected to the grounding conductor in only one place (often
    inside the panel).  The neutral and ground should not be connected
    anywhere else.  Otherwise, weird and/or dangerous things may happen.

    Furthermore, there should only be one grounding system in
    a home.  Some codes require more than one grounding electrode.
    These will be connected together, or connected to the neutral
    at a common point - still one grounding system.  Adding additional
    grounding electrodes connected to other portions of the house
    wiring is unsafe and contrary to code.

    If you add a subpanel, the ground and neutral are usually
    brought as separate conductors from the main panel, and are
    not connected together in the subpanel (ie: still only one
    neutral-ground connection).  However, in some situations
    (certain categories of separate buildings) you actually do
    have to provide a second grounding electrode - consult your
    inspector.

    The other two wires will usually be black, and are the "hot"
    wires.  They are attached to the distribution transformer as
    well.

    The two black wires are 180 degrees out of phase with each
    other.  This means if you connect something to both hot wires,
    the voltage will be 220 volts.  If you connect something to the
    white and either of the two blacks you will get 110V.

    Some panels seem to only have three wires coming into them.
    This is either because the neutral and ground are connected
    together at a different point (eg: the meter or pole) and one
    wire is doing dual-duty as both neutral and ground, or in some
    rare occasions, the service has only one hot wire (110V only
    service).

Subject: What is a circuit?

    Inside the panel, connections are made to the incoming wires.
    These connections are then used to supply power to selected
    portions of the home.  There are three different combinations:
        1) one hot, one neutral, and ground: 110V circuit.
        2) two hots, no neutral, and ground: 220V circuit.
        3) two hots, neutral, and ground: 220V circuit + neutral,
           and/or two 110V circuits with a common neutral.

    (1) is used for most circuits supplying receptacles and
    lighting within your house.  (3) is usually used for supplying
    power to major appliances such as stoves, and dryers - they
    often have need for both 220V and 110V, or for bringing several
    circuits from the panel box to a distribution point.  (2) is
    usually for special 220V motor circuits, electric heaters, or
    air conditioners.

    [Note: In the US, the NEC frequently permits a circuit similar
    to (2) be used for stoves and dryers - namely, that there
    are two hot wires, and a wire that does dual duty as neutral
    and ground, and is connected to the frame as well as providing
    the neutral for 110V purposes - three prong plugs instead
    of four (*only* for stoves/dryers connected to the main panel.
    When connected to most sub-panels, 4 prong plugs and receptacles
    are required).  In our not-so-humble opinion this is crazy, but
    the NFPA claims that this practice was re-evaluated for the 1992 NEC,
    and found to be safe.  Check your local codes, or inquire as to
    local practice -- there are restrictions on when this is
    permissible.]

    (1) is usually wired with three conductor wire: black for hot,
    white for neutral, and bare for grounding.

    (2) and (3) have one hot wire coloured red, the other black, a
    bare wire for grounding, and in (3) a white wire for neutral.

    You will sometimes see (2) wired with just a black, white and ground
    wire.  Since the white is "hot" in this case, both the NEC and CEC
    requires that the white wire be "permanently marked" at the ends
    to indicate that it is a live wire.  Usually done with paint, nail
    polish or sometimes electrical tape.

    Each circuit is attached to the main wires coming into the
    panel through a circuit breaker or fuse.

    There are, in a few locales, circuits that look like (1), (2)
    or (3) except that they have two bare ground wires.  Some places
    require this for hot tubs and the like (one ground is "frame ground",
    the other attaches to the motor).  This may or may not be an
    alternative to GFCI protection.

Subject: "grounding" versus "grounded" versus "neutral".

    According to the terminology in the CEC and NEC, the
    "grounding" conductor is for the safety ground, i.e., the green
    or bare wire.  The word "neutral" is reserved for the white when
    you have a circuit with more than one "hot" wire.  Since the white
    wire is connected to neutral and the grounding conductor inside the
    panel, the proper term is "grounded conductor".  However, the
    potential confusion between "grounded conductor" and "grounding
    conductor" can lead to potentially lethal mistakes - you should
    never use the bare wire as a "grounded conductor" or white wire
    as the "grounding conductor", even though they are connected
    together in the panel.

    [But not in subpanels - subpanels are fed neutral and ground
    separately from the main panel.  Usually.]

    In the trade, and in common usage, the word "neutral" is used
    for "grounded conductor".  This FAQ uses "neutral" simply to
    avoid potential confusion.  We recommend that you use "neutral"
    too.  Thus the white wire is always (except in some light
    switch applications) neutral.  Not ground.

Subject: What does a fuse or breaker do?  What are the differences?

    Fuses and circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the power
    to a circuit when the current flow exceeds safe levels.  For
    example, if your toaster shorts out, a fuse or breaker should
    "trip", protecting the wiring in the walls from melting.  As
    such, fuses and breakers are primarily intended to protect the
    wiring -- UL or CSA approval supposedly indicates that the
    equipment itself won't cause a fire.

    Fuses contain a narrow strip of metal which is designed to melt
    (safely) when the current exceeds the rated value, thereby
    interrupting the power to the circuit.  Fuses trip relatively
    fast.  Which can sometimes be a problem with motors which have
    large startup current surges.  For motor circuits, you can use
    a "time-delay" fuse (one brand is "fusetron") which will avoid
    tripping on momentary overloads.  A fusetron looks like a
    spring-loaded fuse.  A fuse can only trip once, then it must be
    replaced.

    Breakers are fairly complicated mechanical devices.  They
    usually consist of one spring loaded contact which is latched
    into position against another contact.  When the current flow
    through the device exceeds the rated value, a bimetallic strip
    heats up and bends.  By bending it "trips" the latch, and the
    spring pulls the contacts apart.  Circuit breakers behave
    similarly to fusetrons - that is, they tend to take longer to
    trip at moderate overloads than ordinary fuses.  With high
    overloads, they trip quickly.  Breakers can be reset a finite
    number of times - each time they trip, or are thrown
    when the circuit is in use, some arcing takes place, which
    damages the contacts.  Thus, breakers should not be used in
    place of switches unless they are specially listed for the
    purpose.

    Neither fuses nor breakers "limit" the current per se.  A dead
    short on a circuit can cause hundreds or sometimes even
    thousands of amperes to flow for a short period of time, which
    can often cause severe damage.

Subject: Breakers?  Can't I use fuses?

    Statistics show that fuse panels have a significantly higher
    risk of causing a fire than breaker panels.  This is usually
    due to the fuse being loosely screwed in, or the contacts
    corroding and heating up over time, or the wrong size fuse
    being installed, or the proverbial "replace the fuse with a
    penny" trick.

    Since breakers are more permanently installed, and have better
    connection mechanisms, the risk of fire is considerably less.

    Fuses are prone to explode under extremely high overload.  When
    a fuse explodes, the metallic vapor cloud becomes a conducting
    path.  Result? from complete meltdown of the electrical panel,
    melted service wiring, through fires in the electrical
    distribution transformer and having your house burn down.
    Breakers don't do this.

    Many jurisdictions, particularly in Canada, no longer permit
    fuse panels in new installations.  The NEC does permit new
    fuse panels in some rare circumstances (requiring the special
    inserts to "key" the fuseholder to specific size fuses)

    Some devices, notably certain large air conditioners, require fuse
    protection in addition to the breaker at the panel.  The fuse
    is there to protect the motor windings from overload.  Check the
    labeling on the unit.  This is usually only on large permanently
    installed motors.  The installation instructions will tell you
    if you need one.

Subject: What size wire should I use?

    For a 20 amp circuit, use 12 gauge wire.  For a 15 amp circuit,
    you can use 14 gauge wire (in most locales).  For a long run,
    though, you should use the next larger size wire, to avoid
    voltage drops.  12 gauge is only slightly more expensive than
    14 gauge, though it's stiffer and harder to work with.

    Here's a quick table for normal situations.  Go up a size for
    more than 100 foot runs, when the cable is in conduit, or
    ganged with other wires in a place where they can't dissipate
    heat easily:

        Gauge        Amps
        14        15
        12        20
        10        30
        8        40
        6        65

    We don't list bigger sizes because it starts getting very dependent
    on the application and precise wire type.

Subject: Where do these numbers come from?

    There are two considerations, voltage drop and heat buildup.
    The smaller the wire is, the higher the resistance is.  When
    the resistance is higher, the wire heats up more, and there is
    more voltage drop in the wiring.  The former is why you need
    higher-temperature insulation and/or bigger wires for use in
    conduit; the latter is why you should use larger wire for long
    runs.

    Neither effect is very significant over very short distances.
    There are some very specific exceptions, where use of smaller
    wire is allowed.  The obvious one is the line cord on most
    lamps.  Don't try this unless you're certain that your use fits
    one of those exceptions; you can never go wrong by using larger
    wire.

Subject: What does "14-2" mean?

    This is used to describe the size and quantity of conductors
    in a cable.  The first number specifies the gauge.  The second
    the number of current carrying conductors in the wire - but
    remember there's usually an extra ground wire.  "14-2" means
    14 gauge, two insulated current carrying wires, plus bare ground.

    -2 wire usually has a black, white and bare ground wire.  Sometimes
    the white is red instead for 220V circuits without neutral.  In
    the latter case, the sheath is usually red too.

    -3 wire usually has a black, red, white and bare ground wire.
    Usually carrying 220V with neutral.

Subject: What is a "wirenut"/"marrette"/"marr connector"?  How are they
    used?

    A wire nut is a cone shaped threaded plastic thingummy that's used
    to connect wires together.  "Marrette" or "Marr connector"
    are trade names.  You'll usually use a lot of them in DIY wiring.

    In essence, you strip the end of the wires about an inch, twist them
    together, then twist the wirenut on.

    Though some wirenuts advertise that you don't need to twist the
    wire, do it anyways - it's more mechanically and electrically
    secure.

    There are many different sizes of wire nut.  You should check
    that the wire nut you're using is the correct size for the
    quantity and sizes of wire you're connecting together.

    Don't just gimble the wires together with a pair of pliers or
    your fingers.  Use a pair of blunt nose ("linesman") pliers,
    and carefully twist the wires tightly and neatly.  Sometimes
    it's a good idea to trim the resulting end to make sure it
    goes in the wirenut properly.

    Some people wrap the "open" end of the wirenut with electrical
    tape.  This is probably not a good idea - the inspector may
    tear it off during an inspection.  It's usually done because
    a bit of bare wire is exposed outside the wire nut - instead
    of taping it, the connection should be redone.

Subject: What is a GFI/GFCI?

    A GFCI is a ``ground-fault circuit interrupter''.  It measures
    the current current flowing through the hot wire and the
    neutral wire.  If they differ by more than a few milliamps, the
    presumption is that current is leaking to ground via some other
    path.  This may be because of a short circuit to the chassis of
    an appliance, or to the ground lead, or through a person.  Any
    of these situations is hazardous, so the GFCI trips, breaking
    the circuit.

    GFCIs do not protect against all kinds of electric shocks.  If,
    for example, you simultaneously touched the hot and neutral
    leads of a circuit, and no part of you was grounded, a GFCI
    wouldn't help.  All of the current that passed from the hot
    lead into you would return via the neutral lead, keeping the
    GFCI happy.